Lecture 2: German Idealism

This lecture was all about Kant and Hegel; the basics of Philosophical/German Idealism.

We started off with a summary of what was going on in the world at the time. The French Revolution is the main influence and began with an almost religion-like attack on the monarchy, similar to Freemasonry, which tried to change things like the calendar to have 10 months in a year and 10 weeks in a month. This soon collapsed into the Terror which was then ended by Napoleon who set up a military dictatorship, with a "levee en masse" meaning that the entire nation was an army, people were referred to as "citizen" rather than "sir" or "madam" in order to prevent social hierachy. Napoleon was a Jacobean and fought for democracy and human rights. Wordsworth was a supporter of the revolution, referring to it as "bliss", until The Terror emerged and showed the dark side of true equality. At this point, Wordsworth became religious, mystic and conservative. Because of the Terror, many people changed their views and liberals had to re-evaluate what exactly it was that they wanted. This was also the era of people such as Addison, Newton and Smith, and the ideas of science and economic freedom were very popular.

It is also important to remember that Romanticism was a reaction to the Enlightenment.

Kant

Kant is often seen as the founder of German Idealism. He was a liberal and a supporter of the French Revolution. In one of his most influential books, "A Critique of Pure Reason", he outlines his main ideas. To start with, he says that everything percieved has two natures; Nuomenal and Phenomenal. These are separate worlds in which objects exist both in our perception and out of it. This idea addresses the problem of causality in empiricism which is present both in Hume's philosophy, in which there is no causality in nature and everything is purely in our minds (this is a humanist perspective, saying that we work on the habit of mind), and Berkley's philosophy which argues the provisionality of existence of percieved phenomena (this means that things flash in and out of existance as they go in and out of our perception and is put down to the action of God). Kant argues that the nuomenal world is perceived by "intuition", especially shown in the aesthetic reaction to art and beauty. For example, Keats wrote that "Beauty is Truth. Truth is Beauty.", saying that this is all we can and need to know. The idea is that objects are "things in themselves", even when they are not perceived, they are still there, but they are not the same. When you perceive an object it passes into the phenomenal world. As evidence, Kant puts forward the idea that intuition is an objective force and that subjective feelings are our connection to the nuomenal world, therefore our aesthetic response is proof that objects do not go out of existence when they are not perceived. This philosophy of Plato. Therefore Kanteans believe that abstract art is the result of trying to paint the object in it's nuominal, or natural, form.

Kant had 12 categories of perception and believed in a Copernican Revolution, that the mind actively shapes the universe. This is the opposite to empiricism. Kant argued that the mind impresses itself on nuominal objects and brings them into the phenomenal world. Therefore, the universe looks the way it does because of the perceptive apparatus of the mind; it is NOT like that in nature. This means that reality is conditioned by the mind, and this is the key to German Idealism.

Kant's Morality

Kant argued for the Categorical Imperative, which he said comes in several forms. It is based on the idea of universalisation, that you should act on the premise that any decision you make will become a universal rule that everyone will abide by. Therefore your decisions must be moraly "right" rather than "good" for you. It is based on the idea of innate ideas of right and wrong, that everyone knows the difference even if their actions are not always right. (This goes directly agains empiricists which argue that there are NO innate ideas). Kant saw morality as "the moral law within"; the intuition that tells us what is right and what is wrong. This is based on the idea that it is the intentions that are either good or bad, regardless of the outcomes or consequences. The empiricist view is utilitarianist, seeing acheivement of aims as good, regardless of how it is done. This is the opposite of the Kantean system. Kant believed that it is better to destroy the whole world than to tell a lie or do a wrong. Therefore Kant completely rejects utilitarianism. He says that all people are equal and we all know the difference between right and wrong.

Hegel

Hegel was an idealist, like Kant, and was writing after the revolution, mostly during the Napoleonic wars. He is known as a philosopher on European supremacy, and was a devout Christian. He argued that any possible idea contains its own negation. This is based on a Grecian system of triads, and is very much influenced by Aristotle. Basically, each idea contains it's opposite; for example, the antithesis for the thesis of "existence" would be "non-existence" and the synthesis would be "history" or "becoming" because he believed that everything is constantly changing. This is therefore a theory of dialectical change, from Aristotle's syllogistic logic. The proof of existence is therefore in the concept of non-existence and this clash produces the synthesis, which then becomes a new thesis.

Hegel was a teleological thinker, which means that he believed that these processes have a purpose, and that purpose is a steady progress towards paradise where we will be re-united with God and live happily ever after. Therefore he saw history as having a purpose, and said that no change is ever random. This is the basis of the Christian religion.

For more in depth information and analysis, Chris has posted several youtube videos on Hegel, Kant, Byron and Romanticism.

Seminar 1: Mary Wollstencraft and John Stuart Mill

We started the Seminar by discussing the government's decision to cap universities and the financial role that they play in education as a whole, in relation to the current economic climate. This brought us on to what the Conservatives will most likely do if they win the next election; the fact that they are free marketers and reflect a lot of Adam Smith's political and economic philosophy. This is very fitting with today's discussion of Wollstencraft and Mill because their philosophies are intertwined with education and the structure of society, especially the way that this shapes us.

Mary Wollstencraft had lots of responsibility from a young age, and in many respects can be seen as a casualty of her time. She preached that women should get the same education and opportunities as men and that the role that society has forced on women is constricting and smothering, taking away any possible independence. She was not educated to be free, and so she fell into the same traps that she was advising against. She was often called a hypocrite because she said that women should not cowtail to men and their fleeting fancies, and yet she was several times a mistress and became so embroiled in such emotional turmoil that she attempted suicide over a man. This goes completely against her beliefs and so many think that her work has been degraded as a result of her personal life. It makes it very difficult to respect her, however, in my opinion she was simply an example of what was wrong with society and therefore proved her own point, adding further strength to her arguments. She also gained support from some of Rousseau's arguments, however they did not see eye to eye on everything.

She boosted her writing in many ways, such as the passionate approach she had, with exclamations and personal feelings being expressed. This shows that she was very strong minded and gives the audience more confidence in her. She is often sarcastic, making women question their role and wether they need protection etc. She often reaches out to women as well, especially on the points of; unfaithful husbands, unequal treatment (for example the inheritance laws of the time) and the fact that they can be independent and look after themselves. There is also one paragraph written as if she were talking to God, which would have appealed to many at the time. Her writing gives women a voice, which was greatly needed at the time, taking away from the power that men held over women and, but she is equally critical of men for controlling and women for being controlled. She argued vehemently that women have reason and potential on a par with men, but that the role that society had given them meant that this could never be achieved. Therefore, women are not inferior, only unfairly treated and made weak by society. The fact that women were obliged to look to men for everything meant that they were constantly submissive and their thoughts never turned to anything but whiling away their time, meaning that they only ever thought of themselves, encouraging vanity and idleness, further taking away from their potential.

John Stuart Mill focused more on what society can and should control and how much control the government and other organisations should have over the individual. He thought that everyone should be equal and not controlled, with equal opportunities. He was utilitarian and believed in freedom of speech, having individual space and a limit on the power and influence of the government. He was Utilitarian, meaning that he wanted the greatest good for the greatest number and to maximise good and pleasure and minimise pain. He devised a hierachy of pleasures, however many people have a problem with this part of his philosophy because happiness is very subjective and completely dependant on the individual's situation. His focus was on inner conciousness and thought, however he did acknowledge that every action has a consequence and that these should be monitored to so that no harm was done to society in general. Mill saw no difference between men and women, which is advantageous in political matters as they can be treated exactly the same and only one set of rules and expectations is needed. However, Wollstencraft saw women and men as different privately and only publically the same. Mill was writing a century later than Wollstencraft, and this can be seen in the increased equality in his view and arguments.

On the whole, both were very influential, but Wollstencraft's work was greatly damaged by her personal life and, in my opinion, Mill was more valid because his arguments could be acted upon; there is very little that can be done about the restrictive role of society.

Term 2 Lecture 1 - Liberty and Utilitarianism in the 18th and 19th Centuries

This is the first lecture back and raises some very interesting questions, such as how do we know what others experience, how do we measure pleasure or pain or harm, and how much control do we really have over our own lives, considering that individuals cannot get their say in the governing of the country and we all have to follow the same rules? Here are my notes:

John Wilkes - 18th century journalist - interest in freedom of press

• He was unattractive but charming - claimed he could talk away his face in twenty minutes. Had numerous affairs.
• An advocate of civil liberties.
• His “Essay on Women” has been described as the “dirtiest poem in the English language”.
• Notorious politician, MP and one time Mayor of London who was exiled several times and jailed a number of times.
• He was a member of the Hellfire Club who did whatever they wanted such as drugs, orgies, drinking etc.
• Established laws such as the right to report on parliament
• A vocal critic of the corrupt aristocracy and people in power. This meant that he was very popular with the lower classes and the Americans as he fought for their voice and civil liberties.
• Put forward the first bill proposing universal male suffrage in 1775
• Anonymously set up a scandalous newspaper called “The North Briton” (in attack of the Prime Minister’s propaganda newspaper “The Briton”. The paper was written from the point of view of Scottish, in a condescending tone towards the corrupt London society and government. Criticised public figures such as calling the secretary of state “weak, passionate and insolent”. It was very popular and sold twenty times as many papers as the original “Briton” leading the prime minister to stand down. The king was outraged at the lack of respect for people in power so he attacked the paper with prosecutions, lawsuits, bribes and assassination attempts however they could not prove who the author was. Wilkes kept pushing, with Issue 45 becoming notorious because the King was called a liar in the most vicious attack yet. A General Warrant was issued (only the crime named, not the criminal) and Wilkes and 49 others were arrested. Wilkes sued the government for invasion of privacy and false arrest, setting precedent by stopping the General Warrant and establishing a right to full legal procedure.
• However, he was then expelled from the house of commons so he fled to france but was arrested on his return. He campaigned and re-won his seat in the House of Commons from prison however the house voted him incapable of being elected. Soon after he was elected Alderman and Mayor of London by City officers.
• Wilkes reported on Parliament, which was unheard of, in the City of London, against Westminster. City of Westminster Police tried to arrest the printers, but they were arrested by City of London police. This established that Parliament could and should be reported on and judged by the people.

Mary Wollstonecraft - early feminist - interest in freedom of women

• Wollstonecraft had a difficult early life, born into the middle class but with a father obsessed with social standing, they slowly slipped into poverty as he turned drunk, violent and promiscuous. Mary was forced to work as a governess in a wealthy family in Ireland where she became obsessed by education and read everything that she could.
• In 1787 when she was in her early 20s, she published her first work “Thoughts on the education of daughters” where she put forward her ideas that education for women was superficial and did not equip them for independent though or judgement. This is underpinned by Locke’s idea that the mind is a tabula rata and that therefore if you educate people properly, they can be rational, responsible citizens.
• Returned to London and set up a school.
• Becomes a rational dissenter (applied rationality to religion) and Unitarian (did not believe in the trinity).
• Fascinated by Rousseau who she found inspirational and aggravating. In response to his ideas in “Emile”, she published “Mary”. She liked his ideas on anti-elitism, egalitarianism and his attack on modern manners. However, his ideas about women were opposite to her own, saying that they ought to be “passive and weak”.
• A child of the Enlightenment.
• Fascinated by the French Revolution, seeing it as world-changing in reference to equality. Edmund Burke criticised it because he saw society as being built on tradition and thought that ripping it up would be a disaster. In response to this, Wollstonecraft published “Vindication on the rights of men” in which she criticised the ideas of aristocracy and hereditary power.
• Her next work, “Vindication on the rights of women” was not concerned with the technicalities of what changes and rights she wants to see but is based on pointing out the problems in women’s society, targeting the middle classes (have accepted a submissive role given to them by society, acquire a false sense of themselves, need to be educated properly).
• Tried to isolate gender differences and unite men and women as human beings.
• Her later life was scandalous, with several failed affairs, especially one in Paris in 1792 (at the beginning of the Terror - guillotines) with Imlay who abandoned her, leading her to suicide attempts. She later married Goodwin and had a daughter called Shelley (she also had an illegitimate child). Goodwin wrote a very frank and damning biography of her which threw her out of favour until the end of the 19th century.

Wollstonecraft’s view on liberty:

• Attempt to limit powers of government through bills of rights and the extension of the franchise - trying to put authority into the individual. (Hobbes, Locke)
• Laissez faire attitude to economics, favouring free trade (Adam Smith) and equality of opportunity (education - Wollstonecraft) over egalitarian. However, socialists argue that this is nonsense and that it would be like the Ritz being open to everyone.
• Separation of church and state because religion and morality are private (Locke’s private revelation)

John Stuart Mill - 19th Century - liberty as a political ideal - important politically - utilitarianism

• Jailed at 17 for distributing information on contraception.
• First bill to give women the vote.
• Had a bizarre education. He was the son of a philosopher and god son of Bentham (founder of utilitarianism). John acted as an experiment for them and by 3 years old was reading Greek, from which he learned English and was fluent in both these and Latin by 9 years. They only taught him what they thought was useful, things like languages and politics, and gave him no time for things like the arts or sports. By 16 he was a genius but at just 20 he had a nervous breakdown. Poetry like Wordsworth revived him and he later brought this into his philosophy.

In his work “On Liberty”

• he spoke about freedom of speech being absolute, saying that opinion should never be silenced and can be freely held as long as it does not incite violence.
• Socrates and Christ’s views meant that he saw them as dissenters and used this as an example to prove that the majority may be wrong, and everyone should be allowed to speak up. He pointed out that we can never be absolutely certain of things, such as Andrew Wakefeild who spoke up about the MMR vaccine and triggered much testing and double testing of the drug. Therefore alternative thought is productive and useful and should not be silenced.
• He saw “experiments in living” as showing people exercising their personal freedom and said that this should be allowed, as long as it does not harm anybody.
• He was therefore dead-set against uniformity; “genius can only breathe freely in an atmosphere of freedom”. This points out the fact that great thinkers and genius’ do not fit into society (more often than not) and yet provide for society and enable progress.
• He spoke of self regarding actions, saying that you are free to harm yourself as long as it doesn’t harm others.

Utilitarianism

• Avoids the problems of religion or morals and therefore the tricky ideas of right and wrong.
• Bentham saw ethics as a science, with rationality and enlightenment in practical scales and with happiness being measurable.
• Everyone’s happiness matters as much as everyone else’s.
• “Greatest good for the greatest number”
• Mill came up with a hierarchy of pleasures and was committed to producing the best outcomes, often described as a “cold logic machine”.
• Bentham’s happiness was seen by some to be “that of a contented pig”. Mill said that it is “better to be a discontented Socrates than a contented fool”
• This is a consequential theory, meaning there are three ways to look at it; 1) Acts - think about the right and wrong of it by looking at the consequences, 2) moral rules - society’s rules and acting against pain, 3) disposition - the character or trait that the action exemplifies.
• However, there is a problem with this theory in that it is very similar to Hedonism. Also, how do we class pleasure, pain, or harm? We are unable to understand the sensations and decisions that others experience, therefore it is more like desire satisfaction that pleasure.